Article review a tapestry of brown and green Essay

Article Review A tapestry of browns and greens Tu K Ly Devry University The article â€Å"A Tapestry Of Browns And Greens† was written by Nalini Nadkarni, a pioneering canopy ecologist and professor at The Evergreen State College. This article describes a rich tapestry of personal stories, information, and illustrations, from science to symbol, culture, and religion. Nalini used the metaphor of a tapestry that composed of different colored threads to reflect on her life, as she also came from the vividly mixed ethnic background of her Indian/Hindu and Brooklyn/Jewish parents. She then described how her particular tapestry weaves threads of religion, art, and social justice with her work as a†¦show more content†¦Education was important in her family. Nalini studied hard to get straight A and participated in various school activities. Being well educated created another thread that she wove into her relationship with nature, the realm of the intellect and use of the scientific process to understand trees and forests. While pursuing the stu dy of Biology in college, she began to discover the world of forest ecology and enjoyed the challenge of untangling the endless puzzles she encountered in nature. She then received her PhD in Forest Ecology and started her forest canopy studies. She struggled to convince the graduate committee to understand the importance of tree climbing. Eventually, they helped her carve out a dissertation project, a comparative study of the biomass held within the epiphytes. Her work took place in the spectacular temperate rainforest of the Olympic National Park and the tropical cloud forests of Costa Rica for 25 years. She produced over ninety scientific papers and three scholarly books about canopy ecology. As the result of her studies, Nalini found out that small plant like epiphytic flowers that live high above the forest floor have tremendous ecological importance for the complex tapestry of rainforest ecosystems. As her career progressed, she recognized the necessary to reach out to other s ources of information outside of academia that went beyond the scientific aspects of nature, and involved understanding ofShow MoreRelatedNatural Dyes11205 Words   |  45 PagesReds and pinks * 3.2 Oranges * 3.3 Yellows * 3.4 Greens * 3.5 Blues * 3.6 Purples * 3.7 Browns * 3.8 Greys and blacks * 3.9 Lichen * 3.10 Fungi * 4 Luxury dyestuffs * 4.1 Royal purple * 4.2 Crimson and scarlet * 4.3 The rise of formal black * 5 Decline and rediscovery * 6 Notes * 7 References * 8 External links | [edit] Origins Colors in the ruddy range of reds, browns, and oranges are the first attested colors in a number of ancientRead MoreMasculinity in Chuck Palahniuks Work7062 Words   |  29 Pageseffects of the docile modern workplace as well as advertising and the absence of ‘a great war‘, using the fight club as a cure for this frustration. However, I believe that this analysis is just as one-layered and as an ill-informed .com purchasing site review. It is these types of approaches that have frightened audiences into believing that all men want to do is pummel each other. On the surface, the reader can presume that Palahniuk is angered by the emasculating effects of consumerism as Fight ClubRead MoreLangston Hughes Research Paper25309 Words   |  102 Pagescontinued to submit to segregation and live in poverty. Langston Hughes, 1933 (Library of Congress) Langston was not ashamed of being a black American. He had already written poems celebrating his heritage. He felt connected to the oppressed brown people of the world and hated his father for mistreating his Mexican employees. Witnessing his fathers tyranny made Langston sick enough to require hospitalization. By the end of the summer, Langston was glad to return to school in the UnitedRead MoreAn Introduction to Intercultural Communication29172 Words   |  117 Pagesintercultural and cross cultural? What is cross cultural awareness as opposed to cross cultural knowledge or, are cultural sensitivity and cultural competence the same thing? With a view to clarifying some of the above mentioned terminology, this article will examine terms used in relation to building cross cultural understanding within the business world. Cross cultural understanding simply refers to the basic ability of people within business to recognise, interpret and correctly react to people

The Development Of Mathematics Changes And Grows Continually

Assessment 1A Maths The development of mathematics changes and grows continually. Teachers are finding new ways and strategies to keep up with learning and having a broader view on the ways chidren learn and develop. Their are many views of which theories are best suited in teaching mathematics, different age groups are better suited to different theories.Constructivism is a theory which has become a challenge in teaching mathematics with learning how to develop models of teaching that build on, and are consistent with, this theoretical perspective. Small-group interaction, nonroutine problem solving, and manipulative materials can be valuable tools in the hands of mathematics teachers.Theoretically based frameworks for teaching mathematics in a constructive way allow the potential to guide the use of these tools. A teacher can help students to develop new, more powerful mathematical concepts using the constructivism theory. Novice teachers who want their students to construct a particular idea, often ask for the idea from their students, consciously or unconsciously hoping that at least one student will be able to explain it to the others (Simon, 1991 ). The constructivism approach does not deal with a particular question or concept for example, if a group of students do not have a particular concept, how does a teacher work with them to foster their development of that concept? Constructivist theory is one perspective that works within a framework that helps build andShow MoreRelatedApplication Of A Software Designer1178 Words   |  5 Pagesthat control the devices or networks also they get involved with all phases of the development, design and code. Software developers have been prominent in the evolving technology since the 1960s when company’s started to mass produce computers and they need software to go with the computer. 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why an organisation might need to change Free Essays

string(65) " agents responsible for the execution of the planned alteration\." So you are standing by the H2O ice chest with the remainder of the staff, chew the fating. Then person points to a new notice on the staff cork board. All of you rush to the notice and moan in unison: yes, another alteration will be made in your section. We will write a custom essay sample on why an organisation might need to change or any similar topic only for you Order Now You wonder whether your occupation is on the line, trusting against hope that it is non. Your organisation is traveling through an organisational alteration. ( www.bokca.com ) Many factors underpin the demand for alteration in an administration. Change can stem from growing, economic downswing, tougher or indulgent trading conditions, engineering and scheme alterations. Competitive and client force, authorities statute law and enterprises can all impel alteration. As we enter the twenty-first Century, alteration and how to take it successfully has become the first subject on the heads of organisational leaders. And for good grounds: Change is go oning everyplace ; its velocity and complexness are increasing ; and the future success of our organisations depends on how successful leaders are at taking that alteration. ( Anderson Dean, 2006 p34 ) All of us can be a small dying about alteration, hence, consciously or subconsciously we resist it as sometimes those frights are good founded and if established the alteration will truly hold a negative impact on us. Even though in many instances, nevertheless, those targeted for the alteration semen to gain that the alteration was for the better. Change is invariably increasing particularly with the reaching of the cyberspace and the rapid usage of new engineerings has led to new ways of making concern. In this essay I am traveling to exemplify how internal and external force per unit areas in the administration I work for initiated alteration. I will be pulling on theories and practical experience to convey to fore the procedures of alteration. There have been a batch of extremist alterations in UK schools in the past decennary. The authorities and other educational organic structures have introduced assorted signifiers of inventions that have affected our nursery school and kids ‘s Centre. The Single Funding Formula is one of the inventions that is impacting on my school and kids ‘s Centre. In June 2007 the Government announced that local governments will be required to make and implement a individual expression support for funding Free Entitlement to early old ages proviso for 3 and 4 twelvemonth olds across all sectors. This move was towards bettering equity and transparence in the manner that support is allocated to suppliers of early old ages instruction and in the procedure create support for the 15 hours extension to be delivered from September 2010. What the authorities agencies, is that support degrees and processs do non hold to synchronise for all early old ages ( baby’s room ) suppliers but th ey must be just and any discrepancies should be sensible and incontrovertible. Basically the authorities wants private, voluntary and independent baby’s rooms to be financed in the same manner maintained baby’s rooms are funded. In 1999 the school support system was introduced based upon the Local Management of Schools ( LMS ) and its fiscal deputation to schools. Formula support and the deputation of fiscal duty to schools were its cardinal facets. The schools are located a ball amount budget so they decided on how to pass the money on students. In avertedly a mechanism is used to find how much budget each school is allocated. The implicit in rule for the alterations being required to Formula Funding relate to the debut of the Early Years Foundation Stage. Schools and early old ages suppliers have to follow a construction of acquisition, development and attention for kids from birth to five old ages old. This is called the Early Years Foundation Stage ( EYFS ) . ( hypertext transfer protocol: //www.direct.gov.uk ) This is a planned alteration initiated by the authorities and the Department for Children Schools and Families after recognizing the demand for alteration in their support policy and processs. An inaugural driven from top to bottom and catapulted into action by external and internal power. Private, Voluntary and independent baby’s room suppliers have for a long clip complained about non acquiring adequate money from the authorities Nursery Education Grant to cover the cost some of their Sessionss. Planned alteration involves a witting determination by person ( Federal or national policy shaper, local authorities policymaker, school principal ) to alter or transform some bing pattern in a system or organisation. ( Ciaran Sugrue, 2008 ) The authorities and the Department for Children Schools and Families ( DCSF ) have committed to this planned alteration and they have created a sound measure by measure attack in order to carry through its purposes. They have issued counsel and held audiences to implement the new strategy. The ends of the alteration and its development were clearly set in the counsel sent out to local governments. Suppliers and local governments have been fixing for this for over two old ages, pattern counsel was issued to all local governments last twelvemonth and updated in July this twelvemonth. ( hypertext transfer protocol: //news.bbc.co.uk ) Consultations are besides being held to find why the alteration is necessary. Single expression support jobs and chances have been evaluated. Unison in the missive to it members describe some of the impact this alteration will hold on baby’s rooms. The manner expression is developed could hold a major impact on kept up baby’s rooms, school based baby’s rooms and kids ‘s Centres. One of the chief differences in the new support mechanism is that kept up baby’s rooms will now be funded on the footing of topographic points filled instead than on topographic points offered as was antecedently the instance. This means that nursery school support will be reduced if they offer topographic points in their baby’s room that are non filled. This alteration could intend fiscal troubles for baby’s rooms with unfilled topographic points and should be monitored closely by subdivisions. ( McAnea C, 2009 ) DSCF are the selected alteration agents responsible for the execution of the planned alteration. You read "why an organisation might need to change" in category "Essay examples" They are working with the local governments in audience procedure. Practice counsel, developed from the experience and acquisition of the nine governments working with the DSCF since November 2007, is now available below to assist all LAs get down to develop their ain individual expression. The six original pilot governments are: Hertfordshire, Somerset, Leeds, Rochdale, Croydon and Southampton. Thesiss have since been joined by Derby, Greenwich, North Somerset, North Yorkshire and Shropshire. ( www.dcsf.gov.uk ) In measure with the alteration, DSCF have gathered informations about the clime of the baby’s rooms schools in order to assist them fix for the alteration. Nurseries and other educational establishments were asked to notice on the individual expression support. A interpreter for Newcastle City Council said, ‘All local governments have been directed by the DCSF to reexamine the expression for funding the free entitlement to turn to incompatibilities and fund on the footing of engagement. An unfastened. transparent, clearly reasoned expression has been agreed by the Schools Forum, which has baby’s room headteacher representation on it. Nursery school headteachers, governors and staff have been to the full engaged in the procedure, and are having targeted support to assist pull off the passage procedure. ( Nursery World, 2009 ) DSCF selected a few local governments who piloted the strategy to get down with so will turn over it out in April 2010. They have made themselves sensitive to the force per unit areas for alteration by utilizing webs of people and the pilot strategies. Cardinal stat mis rocks have been set up to find the when, where and how of the strategy. The DSCF released the concluding counsel for implementing the individual expression, have held audience procedures and recognised the cost in each supplier sector and understood the behavior cost. It has besides delegated duty to the local governments for each of the ends and aims of the alteration in expression support. After all questions have been answered, the program will be put into operation nationwide in 2010. This alteration can be described as transitional which is 2nd order established to transform Formula Funding. It is one the complex types of alteration which occurs in an administration. Transitional alteration looks to accomplish a known coveted status that varies from an bing one. It is sporadic, planned, 2nd order and extremist. Over the old ages transitional alteration has become the footing of much of the organizational alteration literature. It besides has its basicss in the work of Kurt Lewin who conceptualised alteration as a three-stage procedure. Transitional alteration is more intrusive than developmental alteration as it replaces bing procedures or processs with something that is wholly new to the company. The period when the old procedure is being dismantled and the new procedure is being implemented is called the transitional stage. A corporate reorganisation, amalgamation, acquisition, making new merchandises or services, and implementing new engineering are illustrations of transitional alteration. 9 ( hypertext transfer protocol: //businessmanagement.suite101.com ) Social scientist Kurt Lewin ‘s theory introduced a three measure alteration theoretical account. He saw behaviour as an active balance of powers working in opposite waies. These driving powers bring about alteration because they lead employees in the coveted way. Controling powers, nevertheless, hinder alteration because they push employees in the opponent way. He argued hence that these powers be examined. Lewin ‘s three-step theoretical account can assist travel the balance towards the way of planned alteration. The first measure in the procedure of altering behavior is to dissolve the existent state of affairs. To dissolve is of import as it helps get the better of the tensenesss of single opposition and group understanding. It can be achieved in three ways. One is to increase the driving power that controls behaviour off from the existent state of affairs. Two is to cut down the commanding powers that negatively affect the motion from the bing equilibrium. Three create some activities that can assist in the unfreezing measure like actuating participants by acquiring them ready for alteration. You could besides construct trust and place jobs and brainstorm solutions within a group. This is what happened with our alteration. DSCF and local governments created a pilot strategy and besides organised audience undertakings and meetings which will construct trust, place and work out jobs. As a formal topic for survey and application, alteration direction can be said to hold begun some 50 old ages ago with what has since become known as the planned theoretical account of alteration. The fact that this theoretical account lies at the bosom of organisation development and is associated with its major theoreticians, such as Blake and Mouton [ 8 ] and Gallic and Bell [ 9 ] , is a testimony to its importance. The beginnings and kernel of planned alteration prevarication with the pioneering work of Kurt Lewin [ 4 ] . ( Burnes Bernard, 1997 ) The 2nd measure in the procedure is motion. Here, it is purported that it is necessary to travel the mark system to a new degree of balance. One of the three actions to be taken to assist the motion includes carrying employees to be in understanding that the position quo is non helpful to them and promoting them to see the job from a fresh position, working together on a Hunt for new, of import information and link the vision of the group to well-respected, influential leaders that besides support the change.. The 3rd measure in the three-step alteration theoretical account is refreezing. This measure is to be taken when alteration has already taken topographic point to do it effectual over clip. This is when new values are integrated into the community values and traditions. By equilibrating the drive and commanding power the new balance is stabilised. New forms need to be reinforced and institutionalised through formal and informal mechanism including policies and processs. This alteration has evidently non received a warm welcomed from some of the early old ages suppliers. Many particularly the kept up baby’s rooms fear that support by caput count alternatively of topographic points available will cut down their support by comparatively big proportions. There is talk about baby’s rooms shuting down because of cuts in support hence taking to occupation loses or cut. Megan Pacey, main executive of Early Education, which represents baby’s room schools in the kept up sector, said they were confronting budget cuts of between a one-fourth and a 3rd. She said: â€Å" At the really least it means there will be redundancies to staff and it is improbable that baby’s room schools will be able to make the extra things like address and linguistic communication therapy and extended household services. ( www.bbc.co.uk ) Others feel that any cuts will hold a damaging consequence on the kids ‘s life and acquisition and are recommending for physical action. Nurseries are being urged by Early Education to subscribe a request against the execution of the Early Years Single Funding Formula ( EYSFF ) , which it claims will hold a negative impact on the most deprived kids. ( www.nurseryworld.co.uk ) â€Å" It ‘s a 2nd place for my household. When we ‘re both working we have to cognize our kids will be loved, cared for and educated to the highest criterions, † her male parent, Dean Halfpenny-Steel, says. â€Å" The whole Centre is portion of the household. † But from September following twelvemonth that could alter as the baby’s room is confronting losing a one-fourth of its budget in the support difference that is endangering every state-run nursery school in England ( www.guardian.co.uk ) Headteachers of kept up baby’s rooms are afraid that hard currency will be switched to private baby’s rooms. This will hold annihilating effects on kept up baby’s room schools. Our baby’s room has already experienced the above and has made immense accommodations to our budget in clip for new alterations in support policy and processs. Casual staff have had their hours slashed and one individual voluntary stood down. Two people who are on pregnancy leave have non had their station covered by other staff as new people have non been employed. We presently short staffed but everyone is willing to work towards salvaging money. Not all employees will oppose alteration, and cabals of support and opposition are non uncommon, for employees frequently will take sides. For illustration, those who favor a peculiar alteration and who feel most comfy with it constantly will back up the alteration, while employees adversely affected by the alteration normally will be less excited by it, are more likely to be dying about it and normally will defy it ( Carr, 1994 ; Geyer, 1995 ) . It is no surprise, hence, that employees who feel threatened by a alteration attempt can defy with a resiliency that matches or exceeds the will of the alteration leaders, particularly when those employees possess power. ( hypertext transfer protocol: //www.esc.edu ) Resistance was met by go toing assorted meetings and allowing our concerns be heard state broad. There have been concerns raised sing the alterations to the support expression for early years.A Local Authorities are expected to hold in topographic point by April 2010 a individual support expression which allocates support to all early old ages suppliers, maintained, private, voluntary and independent, based on the same principles.A This has caused troubles in a important figure of LAs and has resulted in the Minister, Dawn Primarola, composing to LAs and directing extra counsel to them. ( hypertext transfer protocol: //www.naht.org.uk ) The DCSF select commission has decided to establish an enquiry into the impact the individual support expression will hold on maintained nursery school. The NAHT is stating their members to supply written entries to the commission. Following the Committee ‘s unwritten grounds session on the Early Years Single Funding Formula on 28 October, the Children, Schools and Families Committee is now ask foring written entries on: The expected impact of new local support expression on suppliers of early old ages instruction and child care services ; Difficulties which have been encountered in pulling up new support expression, and how they are being overcome. ( hypertext transfer protocol: //www.naht.org.uk ) Change is natural and sometimes good, but people ‘s response to it is unpredictable and even irrational sometimes. It can nevertheless be managed good if done decently. Change is upsetting for people and has greater possible to do failures, loss of production, or falling quality in work done. Besides there is nil every bit of import to the endurance of an administration as alteration. There are so many historical illustrations of administrations that failed to alter and are now out of concern. I feel to successfully pull off this support alteration, things will hold to be seen from the position the employees. There should be definition and apprehension. Everyone is fearful of the unknown and most alteration ever brings the unknown and or an outlook of loss doing people to defy it. The front-end of a individual ‘s opposition to alter is how they see the alteration and the back-end is how good they are capable of covering with the alteration they imagine. A individual †˜s grade of opposition to alter is normally dominated by whether they see the alteration as good or bad, and how strict they anticipate the impact of the alteration will be on them. If they should accept the alteration it would hold been based on the quality of their header accomplishments. The political metaphor is more applicable to understanding opposition to alter because it acknowledges the importance of organisational civilization and political relations ( Gallagher, Rose, McClelland, Reynolds, A ; Tombs, 1997 ; Hartel A ; Berry, 1999 ; Meyerson A ; Martin, 1987 ; Pettigrew, 1973, 1985, 1987 ) and that opposition is frequently site specific ( Knights A ; Vurdubakis, 1994 ) . It more readily acknowledges that employees will of course be leery about alteration ( Toffler, 1970 ) , and that opposition is frequently a consequence of the employees ‘ subjective constructs of what is desirable ( Collinson, 1994 ; Jermier, Knights, A ; Nord, 1994 ) . ( Phil Hay et Al, 2000 ) My occupation, if I was a leader would be to turn to their opposition from both terminals to assist the headteachers cut down it to a minimum, manageable degree. I would non bulldoze through their opposition so that I can travel in front which sometimes feels like they are making. If I was DSCF I would carry Headteachers of the benefits the proposed alterations will convey. I would besides do certain that headteachers have the chance to act upon the alterations by organizing a working group, for case. Its members would be the respected amongst the schools and would besides be people who have a existent positive attitude towards the alteration. They would be working group that is unfastened to new thoughts and capable of bring forthing originative solutions. Finally they would be cognizant of the practical deductions of any solution to individual expression support. How to cite why an organisation might need to change, Essay examples

Competitive Strategy Strategic Management Theory and Application

Question: Discuss about the Competitive Strategy for Strategic Management Theory and Application. Answer: Introduction: Key Ideas: The video tells us about the meaning of strategy and the various factors related to the strategy. This video is prepared by David Kryscynski to make us understand about an organisational strategy and the various aspects depending upon which the strategy works. In this video, it is shown that the strategy comes from a Greek word Strategos. According to Greeks, Strategos means an art of the general and according to Chinese, the strategy is considered as the Art of War. With the help of a diagram, various approaches related to the strategy are introduced in the video(Kryscynski, 2015). A good strategy is to see or to judge something special which others cannot. Diagram in this video shows various aspects related to the strategy, which fails in describing the strategy completely and only works as the supportive elements. Various aspects shown in this video are not able to generate the specific idea about the strategy. Some of the ideas related to the strategy are 1. The strate gy should be an easy one and should describe itself easily, 2. One should completely identify the needs of the market to manage the performance of the product, 3. Product launched must fulfil all the requirements of the customer, 4. Product should have some unique values, so that a customer uses our manufactured or designed product not others, 5. The strategy used must tell us about various capabilities of a firm, which helps in presentation of a product in the market, 6. It should provide an idea for utilization of the resources before presenting into the market, 7. Finally, a good strategy is that which gives a clear description about place of competition, resources require, capabilities and method to sustain a unique value (Suttle, 2015). Implementation of ideas: What does strategy means and how it is related to various approaches, is clearly described in this video. Use of the strategy by an organisation following various aspects and to make that strategy stable is explained in the video. According to the video a large number of organisations are using different-different methods for planning their strategy (Mckeown, 2013). As an example, we can consider Deloitte an Australia based company using different approaches of strategy at present. In the video, it is shown that a strategy must provide a clear judgement about unique values that can be added to the product at the time of manufacture (Kalpic, 2002). A good strategy helps to judge something different which others cannot. The ideas are being applied globally in various organisations, followed by various factors of traditional approach. By the use of custom and traditional approaches capabilities of an organisation can be maintained and further, it helps in mainta ining the sustainability. Business Model Innovation Key Ideas: The video is completely based on business model innovation. Material used in this video is written by DR. Oliver Gasman. He has written this to help an industry to revolutionize its productivity by using a business model innovation. Business model helps an industry in managing their daily business and clients (UniStGallen, 2013). It also describes about various opportunities and provides many advantages to an industry. Business model innovation gives a description about introducing new technologies to the business. According to Oliver, the day success is the enemy of success tomorrow. Innovation increases the customer value of a product or service and lowers their cost (Kemmis, 2012). Therefore, we can say it creates a competitive advantage. Misconceptions related to innovation are like ideas that nobody had before, requirement of big resources for a big success, etc. According to the video, some important aspects of business model innovation are the maximum part of innova tion is based upon different ideas used, support of resources is also necessary in innovation and growth of an industry depends upon the method and technology used in the innovation model. Implementation of ideas: An example of companies like Google, Dell, Cisco, etc. is considered in explaining the business innovation model in the video. Innovation mainly depends upon the type of market and customers with whom one wants to carry its business, type of Customer service being provided to the customers against their product and revenue generating methods. For the development of a business one should follow four steps which are Initiation, Ideation, Integration and Implementation. Initiation In this process the main focus of an organisation is to analyze its current business model and to make the important changes in the model from time to time if required. Ideation In this process an organisation compares their model with the models being used by other organisations and creates a new model according to the requirement (Kaplan, 2012). Integration In this process a new model is generated by collecting information from various models present in the market and consistency of the model is checked. Implementation - This is the final step, in this step the newly created business model is implemented in that particular organisation. An organisation should implement one business model at a time and it should clearly communicate the need of that model. It is must for a company to give some time for the implementation a new business model, because innovation need time to be implemented. An organisation needs to overcome the negative tasks and must have the top management who can provide them sponsorship. The model being used in any small, medium or large enterprises directly depends upon the requirement of that organisation. Therefore, the development of an organisation is highly affected by business model innovation. References Kalpic, B., 2002. Strategic management theory and application, Available at: https://www.diversus.biz/publications/Strategic%20mngm_2004.pdf?bcsi_scan_f5761508bdf24bd5=0bcsi_scan_filename=Strategic%20mngm_2004.pdf Kaplan, S., 2012. The Business Model Innovation Factory: How to Stay Relevant When The World .... :John Wiley Sons. Kemmis, D., 2012. Business Model Innovation: Australian business foundation, Available at: https://www.aciic.org.au/assets/Publications/2012/Business-Model-Innovation.pdf Kryscynski, D., 2015. What is Strategy?,Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TD7WSLeQtVw Mckeown, M., 2013. The Strategy Book ePub eBook: How to Think and Act Strategically to Deliver .... :Pearson UK. Suttle, R., 2015. Different Types of Business Strategies. Different Types of Business Strategies, Available at: https://smallbusiness.chron.com/different-types-business-strategies-4634.html UniStGallen, H., 2013. Business Model Innovation, Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B4ZSGQW0UMI

Hypertension Western and Traditional Chinese Medicinal Perspectives Essay Example

Hypertension: Western and Traditional Chinese Medicinal Perspectives Essay Hypertension, high blood pressure that remains elevated over time, is a very common disease. Uncontrolled hypertension can cause severe problems, but the early stages of hypertension may not have severe symptoms. Some patients, who already have hypertension, even feel nothing unusual; however, after a long time of suffering from hypertension, severe consequences may follow such as stroke, congestive heart failure, or heart attack. Today, a lot of people have hypertension. A recent medical report(1) shows that as many as 50 million Americans either have high blood pressure or are taking high blood pressure medication and that hypertension is one of several factors associated with cardiovascular disease, the number one killer of both males and females in America. Cardiovascular disease claims more lives annually than all cancers combined, killing approximately one million people in the U. S. each year and disabling countless others. Therefore, how to control blood pressure in healthy people and how to control hypertension for those who already suffer from this disease is a very important topic. Both western medicine and Traditional Chinese Medicine, which is also called TCM, have their points of view to analysis, diagnosis, treat, and prevent hypertension. Western medicine believes hypertension can be controlled by taking daily prescription drugs and by making lifestyle choices for good health. Western medicinal treatments operate on the belief that as long as blood pressure can be controlled and remain in a normal range, hypertension won’t threaten the patient’s life. We will write a custom essay sample on Hypertension: Western and Traditional Chinese Medicinal Perspectives specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Hypertension: Western and Traditional Chinese Medicinal Perspectives specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Hypertension: Western and Traditional Chinese Medicinal Perspectives specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer TCM believes that taking prescription drugs everyday to help control blood pressure may cause many side effects that will not cure hypertension; however, other treatments, such as acupuncture, Qi-Gong, or massage, do not require patients to take medication and have succeeded in curing hypertension in many cases. Blood pressure is responsible for delivering oxygen to the organs in our body. Blood pressure cannot be increased or decreased as a response when our body receive signal from the environment. For example, when we are angry, our blood pressure may increase. Hypertension is abnormally high blood pressure in the arteries. For an adult, the normal blood pressure should be lower than 140/90mmHg. When the blood pressure reading is higher than it, you may be considered to be in the high range. From the view of western medicine, there are many causes of high blood pressure. According to a medical report, (1) in about 90% of hypertension cases, the causes are unknown, and when the causes are unknown, it is called essential hypertension. If hypertension has physical problems behind it, it is called as secondary hypertension. The most common factors that can cause hypertension are kidney disease or thyroid disease. Western doctors also believe that other factors are associated with hypertension, including inheritance, obesity, and excessive consumption of alcohol, diet and life style (1). In Traditional Chinese Medicine, there are two important theories in explaining the human body. One is called Yin-Yang theory, which means Yin and Yang are on either opposite ends of a cycle, like the seasons of the year. This opposition is relative. Yin and Yang are never static but in a constantly changing balance. The other is the five elements theory and the five elements are metal, wood, water, fire and earth, which function as the five main organs, lung, liver, kidney, heart and spleen respectively. Each element is controlled and generated by another. TCM believes that hypertension is primarily related to the imbalanced Yin and Yang in heart, liver, and kidney, and therefore, keeping yin-and-yang balance is the most effective way keep disease away. In western medicine (7), in order to have appropriate diagnosis for hypertension, the western practitioners usually require blood pressure tests, at least two measurements at two different times after the fist initial screening. Patients should minimize physical activity and should not consume coffee or drinks that contain caffeine before measurement because caffeine or exercise can elevate blood pressure. Blood pressure is measured with an instrument called a sphygmomanometer. Two numbers will be received after the measurement. The fist number is the systolic pressure, which is the amount of pressure in your arteries when your heart is pumping or the pressure, which is the amount of the pressure in you arteries. The second number indicates the diastolic pressure, which is the amount of pressure when your heart is resting between beats and the pressure when the last sound is heard. By this measurement, the practitioners can easily tell whether the patient’s blood pressure is normal or not (2). By TCM, the diagnosis is based on four examination techniques. The first is â€Å"questioning,† which is a process to gather patients’ complaints and amily’s history. The second is â€Å"looking† at physical features of the body, such as the face, tongue, hair, nails. The third is â€Å"hearing and smelling† which is to smelling the breath and listening to the sounds coming from the chest offer additional clues. The last examination is â€Å"touching†. â€Å"Touchingâ⠂¬  the pulse is a cornerstone of TCM diagnosis and gives the TCM practitioner a lot of information about the body’s imbalance. The information gathered from these four examinations are used to determine which type of disharmony pattern the individual has. This is important because at various stages of a disease varieties of disharmony patterns are present and require different treatments. That is the reason two individuals with the same disease may be treated very differently by their TCM practitioners. There are usually two different treatments for hypertension in Wstern medicine. The first is the drug treatment. There are many drugs available to control blood pressure. Most of these medications can be taken once a day to help control pressure and initially the drug should be started at the lowest does. Adjustments are usually made every one to two months depending upon tolerability and response because there are certain side effects that occur quickly and can be serious. The second way to treat hypertension is to having a healthy life style. A healthy life style includes having exercise every day, which is helpful to control body weight, eating healthy food, sleeping well, and having a healthy emotional state. From TCM’s points of view, in addition to taking medications, there are still many other TCM treatments available for hypertension. The most widely used treatment, besides herbs, is acupuncture therapy, which applies a needle on various points of the body. These points include Zusanli, Fengchi, Renying, Taixi, Shenshu, Ganshu, Baihui, Qihai, Fengling. The names of these points are termed by traditional Chinese practitioners and are translated from Chinese. According to certain clinical reports, acupuncture therapy for hypertension is effective for about 72%-80 % of hypertension cases( 6). Besides the use of a needle to apply to these points, TCM practictioners use an ignited stick of mugwort or other medicinal herbs over these points of the patient’s body. This treatment is called â€Å"Moxibustion therapy† (6). Following the Moxibustion therapy, applying massage on these points can greatly improve the results in treating hypertension. Another well known therapy is â€Å"Qigong Therapy,† which is a system of traditional knowledge and skill to regulate respiration and concentration of the mind. It is practiced for physical training and for prevention and treatment of hypertension. The Qi-Gong therapy has a history of more than 40 years. According to a report from the Shanghai Institute, 516 patients with hypertension that practiced Qigong by themselves for one year had a percentage of efficiency of 86. %. Another report from Beijing TCM hospital indicates that 136 cases of hypertension with â€Å"Standing Qigong† had an efficiency rate of 91. 9 %( 6). It is generally considered that Qigong lowers high blood pressure mainly by regulating the whole body, especially by regulating the functions of central nervous system . All TCM treatments of hypertension have a similar mechanism, which is regulating the central nervous system in order to make blood pressure descend. In addition, TCM agrees with western medicine’s point that choosing appropriate lifestyle choices is powerful in improving hypertension. For the prevention of hypertension, both western medicine and TCM provide similar suggestions, which can be categorized in three main groups. Firstly, to maintain appropriate body weight and exercise regularly. Secondly, to avoid alcohol, avoid tobacco and reduce salt intake. Finally, to balance lives with positive thinking and optimistic outlook. TCM also suggests using herbs for medical prevention, under direction of a TCM practitioner. TCM believes that correct use of herbs can be beneficial in maintaining a healthy balance in the body and preventing disease. The most popular herbs to treat hypertension include LingZhi, TianMa, HuangQi, CaiHu, DuZhong, which are termed by Chinese Medicinal Scientist. All these herbs must be cooked with water before oral intake. The TCM also believes that prevention is more important than treatment (8). After the comparison of western medicine and TCM for hypertension, we can tell that they both have their advantages and disadvantages. That is why some practitioners suggest that their patients with hypertension are better to receive treatment from not only western medicine but also from TCM. In general, the advantages of western medicine for hypertension are efficient diagnosis and drugs that can help to lower blood pressure as long as the patient keeps taking the medicine. Also, the western hypertension pills are usually tasteless and small. Thus, it is very convenience for patients to carry and take anywhere. The disadvantage of Western medicine is non-stop drug intake which can cause many side effects, especially affecting the liver and kidneys after long time consumption. In addition, the Western medicine is useful to control blood pressure but could not cure hypertension. By contrast, TCM treats hypertension by regulating the whole body and improving body immune system, rather than simply lowering the blood pressure. The methods TCM used usually have no side effects. However, the disadvantages of TCM therapies are that they are a little slower and mild—the patient won’t see the benefits until they try treatments for a while, such as a year. Also, because herbs are usually required to cook before oval intake, it is a little inconvenient for patient to prepare the medicinal decoctions. In addition to inconvenient preparation for the medicinal decoctions, most medicinal decoctions have unfavorable taste. In conclusion, it is best to combine Western medicines and TCM to treat hypertension patients. First of all, control the blood pressure into a normal range with Western medicines, which could be very effective. After blood pressure is controlled within a normal range, patients could start receiving TCM treatments, such as acupuncture or Qi-Gong under the guidance of the Chinese practitioners. Since the practicing with TCM treatments could be a long time, maybe up to one year, patients should keep measuring blood pressure everyday and consulting with doctors to check the improvements with the treatments. In addition, there is one important point in treating hypertension, is thought to be true by both Western medicine and TCM. This important point is having healthy life styles, including exercise, avoidance of alcohol and cigarettes, is very important in treating hypertension. Word Cites 1. Beijing University of Traditional Chinese Medicine(e. d. ) Traditional Chinese Internal Medicine. 2000 2.. Ted J. Kaptchuk The Web That Has No weaver: Understanding Chinese Medicine. New York, NY: 2000. 3. Li Shi Zhen. Ben-Cao Gang Mu, Ming Dynasty 4. Chen Keji, et al: Chinese Journal of Internal Medicine. 1962 (1O) -638 5. http://www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/entrez/query. fcgi? CMD=searchDB=omim 6. Chengdu institute of Traditional Chinese Medicine. Internal Medicine. Si Chuan, 1977 7. http://www. nlm. nih. gov/medlineplus/highbloodpressure. html

How Flight Control Systems Stabilize Rockets

How Flight Control Systems Stabilize Rockets Building an efficient rocket engine is only part of the problem. The rocket must also be stable in flight. A stable rocket is one that flies in a smooth, uniform direction. An unstable rocket flies along an erratic path, sometimes tumbling or changing direction. Unstable rockets are dangerous because its  not possible to predict where they’ll go – they may even turn upside down and suddenly head directly back to the launch pad. What Makes a Rocket Stable or Unstable? All matter has a point inside called the center of mass or â€Å"CM, regardless of its size, mass or shape. The center of mass is the exact spot where all the mass of that object is perfectly balanced. You can easily find the center of mass of an object - such as a ruler - by balancing it on your finger. If the material used to make the ruler is of uniform thickness and density, the center of mass should be at the halfway point between one end of the stick and the other. The CM would no longer be in the middle if a heavy nail was driven into one of its ends. The balance point would be nearer the end with the nail. CM is important in rocket flight because an unstable rocket tumbles around this point. In fact, any object in flight tends to tumble. If you throw a stick, it will tumble end over end. Throw a ball and it spins in flight. The act of spinning or tumbling stabilizes an object in flight. A Frisbee will go where you want it go to only if you throw it with a deliberate spin. Try throwing a Frisbee without spinning it and youll find that it flies in an erratic path and falls far short of its mark if you can even throw it at all.   Roll, Pitch and Yaw Spinning or tumbling takes place around one or more of three axes in flight: roll, pitch and yaw. The point where all three of these axes intersect is the center of mass. The pitch and yaw axes are the most important in rocket flight because any movement in either of these two directions can cause the rocket to go off course.  The roll axis is the least important because movement along this axis will not affect the flight path. In fact, a rolling motion will help stabilize the rocket the same way a properly passed football is stabilized by rolling or spiraling it in flight. Although a poorly passed football may still fly to its mark even if it tumbles rather than rolls, a rocket will not. The action-reaction energy of a football pass is completely expended by the thrower the moment the ball leaves his hand. With rockets, thrust from the engine is still produced while the rocket is in flight. Unstable motions about the pitch and yaw axes will cause the rocket to leave the planned course. A control system is needed to prevent or at least minimize unstable motions. The Center of Pressure Another important center that affects a rockets flight is its center of pressure or â€Å"CP.† The center of pressure exists only when air is flowing past the moving rocket. This flowing air, rubbing and pushing against the outer surface of the rocket, can cause it to begin moving around one of its three axes. Think of a weather vane, an arrow-like stick mounted on a rooftop and used for telling wind direction. The arrow is attached to a vertical rod that acts as a pivot point. The arrow is balanced so the center of mass is right at the pivot point. When the wind blows, the arrow turns and the head of the arrow points into the on-coming wind. The tail of the arrow points in the downwind direction. A weather vane arrow points into the wind because the tail of the arrow has a much larger surface area than the arrowhead. The flowing air imparts a greater force to the tail than the head so the tail is pushed away. There is a point on the arrow where the surface area is the same on one side as the other. This spot is called the center of pressure. The center of pressure is not in the same place as the center of mass. If it were, then neither end of the arrow would be favored by the wind. The arrow would not point. The center of pressure is between the center of mass and the tail end of the arrow. This means that the tail end has more surface area than the head end. The center of pressure in a rocket must be located toward the tail. The center of mass must be located toward the nose. If they are in the same place or very near each other, the rocket will be unstable in flight. It will try to rotate about the center of mass in the pitch and yaw axes, producing a dangerous situation. Control Systems Making a rocket stable requires some form of control system. Control systems  for rockets keep a rocket stable in flight and steer it. Small rockets usually require only a stabilizing control system. Large rockets, such as the ones that launch satellites into orbit, require a system that not only stabilizes the rocket but also enables it to change course while in flight. Controls on rockets can be either active or passive. Passive controls are fixed devices that keep rockets stabilized by their very presence on the rockets exterior. Active controls can be moved while the rocket is in flight to stabilize and steer the craft. Passive Controls The simplest of all passive controls is a stick. Chinese fire arrows  were simple rockets mounted on the ends of sticks that kept the center of pressure behind the center of mass. Fire arrows were notoriously inaccurate in spite of this. Air had to be flowing past the rocket before the center of pressure could take effect. While still on the ground and immobile, the arrow might lurch and fire the wrong way.   The accuracy of fire arrows was improved considerably years later by mounting them in a trough aimed in the proper direction. The trough guided the arrow until it was moving fast enough to become stable on its own. Another important improvement in rocketry came when sticks were replaced by clusters of lightweight fins mounted around the lower end near the nozzle. Fins could be made out of lightweight materials and be streamlined in shape. They gave rockets a dart-like appearance. The large surface area of the fins easily kept the center of pressure behind the center of mass. Some experimenters even bent the lower tips of the fins in a pinwheel fashion to promote rapid spinning in flight. With these spin fins, rockets become much more stable, but this design produced  more drag and limited the rockets range. Active Controls The weight of the rocket is a critical factor in performance and range. The original fire arrow stick added too much dead weight to the rocket and therefore limited its range considerably. With the beginning of modern rocketry in the 20th century, new ways were sought to improve rocket stability and at the same time reduce overall rocket weight.  The answer was the development of active controls. Active control systems included vanes, movable fins, canards, gimbaled nozzles, vernier rockets, fuel injection and attitude-control rockets.   Tilting fins and canards are quite similar to each other in appearance - the  only real difference is their location on the rocket. Canards are mounted on the front end while tilting fins are at the rear. In flight, the fins and canards tilt like rudders to deflect the air flow and cause the rocket to change course. Motion sensors on the rocket detect unplanned directional changes, and corrections can be made by slightly tilting the fins and canards. The advantage of these two devices is their size and weight. They are smaller and lighter and produce less drag than large fins. Other active control systems can eliminate fins and canards altogether. Course changes can be made in flight by tilting the angle at which the exhaust gas leaves the rocket’s engine. Several techniques can be used for changing exhaust direction.  Vanes are small finlike devices placed inside the exhaust of the rocket engine. Tilting the vanes deflects the exhaust, and by action-reaction the rocket responds by pointing the opposite way.   Another method for changing the exhaust direction is to gimbal the nozzle. A gimbaled nozzle is one that is able to sway while exhaust gases are passing through it. By tilting the engine nozzle in the proper direction, the rocket responds by changing course. Vernier rockets can also be used to change direction. These are small rockets mounted on the outside of the large engine. They fire when needed, producing the desired course change. In space, only spinning the rocket along the roll axis or using active controls involving the engine exhaust can stabilize the rocket or change its direction. Fins and canards have nothing to work upon without air. Science fiction movies showing rockets in space with wings and fins are long on fiction and short on science. The most common kinds of active controls used in space are attitude-control rockets. Small clusters of engines are mounted all around the vehicle. By firing the right combination of these small rockets, the vehicle can be turned in any direction. As soon as they are aimed properly, the main engines fire, sending the rocket off in the new direction.   The Mass of the Rocket The mass of a rocket is another important factor affecting its performance. It can make the difference between a successful flight and wallowing around on the launch pad. The rocket engine must produce a thrust that is greater than the total mass of the vehicle before the rocket can leave the ground. A rocket with a lot of unnecessary mass will not be as efficient as one that is trimmed to just the bare essentials. The total mass of the vehicle should be distributed following this general formula for an ideal rocket:   Ninety-one percent of the total mass  should be propellants.Three percent should be tanks, engines and fins.Payload can account for 6 percent. Payloads may be satellites, astronauts or spacecraft that will travel to other planets or moons. In determining the effectiveness of a rocket design, rocketeers speak in terms of mass fraction or â€Å"MF.† The mass of the rocket’s propellants divided by the total mass of the rocket gives mass fraction:  MF (Mass of Propellants)/(Total Mass) Ideally, the mass fraction of a rocket is 0.91. One might think that an MF of 1.0 is perfect, but then the entire rocket would be nothing more than a lump of propellants that would ignite into a fireball. The larger the MF number, the less payload the rocket can carry. The smaller the MF number, the less its range becomes. An MF number of 0.91 is a good balance between payload-carrying capability and range. The Space Shuttle has an MF of approximately 0.82. The MF varies between the different orbiters in the Space Shuttle fleet and with the different payload weights of each mission. Rockets that are large enough to carry spacecraft  into space have serious weight problems. A great deal of propellant is needed for them to reach space and find proper orbital velocities. Therefore, the tanks, engines and associated hardware become larger. Up to a point, bigger rockets fly farther than smaller rockets, but when they become too large their structures weigh them down too much. The mass fraction is reduced to an impossible number. A solution to this problem can be credited to 16th-century fireworks maker Johann Schmidlap. He attached small rockets to the top of big ones. When the large rocket was exhausted, the rocket casing was dropped behind and the remaining rocket fired. Much higher altitudes were achieved. These rockets used by Schmidlap were called step rockets. Today, this technique of building a rocket is called staging. Thanks to staging, it has become possible not only to reach outer space but the moon and other planets, too. The Space Shuttle follows the step rocket principle by dropping off its solid rocket boosters and external tank when they’re exhausted of propellants.

Violations at the workplace Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 37

Violations at the workplace - Case Study Example In this case, the informal complaint did not cause OSHA to send a letter, but the inspector showed up nonetheless. The important thing is for the inspector to show a warrant that allows him to carry out any inspection in the workplace. In fact, the Supreme Court declared that no OSHA inspections should take place without the availability of a warrant or consent to enter a workplace for inspection (Bailey et al., 2008). Further, the individual is grumpy and well known for his disgruntlement, which is something that should be taken into consideration. If more than 80% of complaints are false, the inspector cannot continue acting without consulting the management. OSHA requires a warrant at this time because the issues the disgruntled employee reported could be dealt with at the corporate level (Lasowski, 2010). Having to ask for an inspection because of a disgruntled employee will inconvenience the management, and it is important that the OSHA inspector sits with the management and dis cusses the issues taking place. This will also lead to consented inspection to prove that the company has taken into consideration everything discussed and complained about by the employee. After the inspector leaves, I will take the initiative to sit down with the employee and discuss issues at the workplace. The employee must respect the rules and regulations at the workplace, and offer undivided support towards the accomplishment of goals within the organization. If more than 80% of complaints are false.

Group project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 5

Group project - Essay Example The identity should mirror the business strategy and the organization’s will to advance programs that aim at ensuring the brand lives up to customer expectations. Consumer brand building involves creating a product’s value to consumers. It generally encompasses all things that consumers feel, know, and experience about the product and the business in its entirety (Gordon, 25). The Starbucks logo continues to feature the Starbucks siren although it no longer has the black background and the words â€Å"Starbucks coffee.† Starbuck’s customer base mainly consists of high-income people that have a taste for quality luxury coffee. Teen consumption is also on the upswing (Schultz, 16). After careful analysis and ascertaining that I am marketing in the correct category, I would introduce new changes to the logo to address all customer needs. I would add the words, â€Å"gratifying coffee, with a conscience,† which is significant to the target market. After establishing the brand identity, the focus will now shift to the brand meaning. Here, I analyze how Starbuck communicates the meaning of its products to customers. The performance of the coffee and related products is high. However, Starbucks operates 8078 stores in the United States (Schultz, 18), which results in saturation and self-cannibalization. I propose an international strategy that would ensure Starbuck makes inroads in many countries and seize new market share. After a critical analysis of response judgments, I realize that the perceived high quality coffee might be an issue. The coffee itself is high quality but the quantities are small than what prime competitors sell. Lowering the price could be an alternative to solving this issue. However, lowering the prices would affect customer’s assessment of quality. I therefore decide to increase the quantities of the coffee. Most of Starbucks’ customers care deeply about fair

Online Customer Service Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Online Customer Service - Essay Example However, as the businesses grew, information regarding each customer became difficult as a result of customer growth base. To cope up with the growing customer bases, marketing segmentation and customer grouping was started, where customers were put in slots that could fit into their needs. Grouping of customers and putting them into slots enhanced the expectations of customers, but this also compromises some other desires of the customers since other services are tailor made to groups, not individuals2. In order to meet these challenges, relationship management begun to surface in 1980’s where this idea was to work efficiently with a direct relationship with the customer. Most of the firms realized that this could make them to know more about their customers and provide services that were tailor-made to match their desires. By doing this, firms were able to add value to their customers and themselves. Relationship Management is a group of terms and methodologies that illustra te how businesses should endeavor  and  strive for quality customer service, long term relationship with customers, and provision of quality goods and services. The argument behind good customer relationship include, sense of control, reduction of risks, provide more security, feeling a sense of control and reduction of costs of being a custo The rise of social customer The rise of customer requires that companies should change into a fully fledged social enterprise that values openness and succeeds on the collaboration with customers. The livelihood of the social business is a combination of consistent and immediate flow of information which involves every employee and spans every level of the company3. This means philosophically the customer’s needs at the heart of the vision of the company so as to equip the entire labor force with the right tools so as to ensure that there is customer satisfaction either directly or indirectly. This means operationally that there is a n investment in systems, guidelines and training that will enhance immediate communication between the workers and customers. A social business will have to pay attention and engage a variety of media-email, telephone, mobile and web. Several customers are going for social media to research, rave and rant about their experiences. By amplifying and aggregating experiences of the customers, social media has the ability to either make or break the reputation of the company. Studies have indicated that over 40% of the adults use the web to share their complaints about the services and products. Social media has the ability to bring down the company into its knees if not well managed. Social media has pushed customer service to the front of tactical thinking.  In order to stay in the competition, it is extremely beneficial for companies to know about the needs of a social customer. Use of Social Media Companies in the contemporary business environment are moving closer to its customers , and have taken some steps in resolving the problems encountered by its customers. There is a massive opportunities for various companies in the social web4. Removal of communication obstacles between a business and its customers, social web maintains one-on-one, small-scale relationship with the customers contrary to the setting of large-scale

Development of Human Computer Interface

Development of Human Computer Interface Development of Human Computer Interface Based on Cognitive Model Integrated With Data Mining Techniques M. Mayilvaganan, D. Kalpanadevi Abstract First review concern about the relevant literature survey in order to evaluate the performance of learning ability and knowledge, behavior, attention, by the category of cognitive skills which is analyzed by various data mining techniques. In this paper focus the concepts of cognitive process and data mining techniques which are used to evaluate the usability of system based on metrics for analyzing problem solving resources. The implementation of cognitive process in the Human computer Interface(HCI) system contributes to give better performance of the human behavior which will be analyses by data mining technique of classification and clustering process can be proposed to evaluate the knowledge of person in efficient manner. This implies that the skills will be stimulated over time through intentional support and also helps for various resources based on different categorize. Keywords: GOM Model, Data mining techniques, Human Computer Interface system, Observational method, C4.5, Naà ¯ve Bayes, K-means, Weka Tool. Introduction Data mining also called Knowledge Discovery in Databases (KDD) in the field of discovering novel and potentially useful information from large amount of data. In recent years, there has been increasing interest on the use of data mining to investigate scientific questions for problem solving analysis, an area of human thinking, behavior, analyse the performance from the knowledge criteria are gathered by the techniques of data mining [1]. An ability of cognitive performance is essential in various environment, which is influenced by many qualitative attributes are included for forming the data set. Data mining techniques such as K-nearest neighbor, decision tree, Naà ¯ve Bayes, Neural network, Fuzzy, Genetic and other techniques are applied in various environments [3]. This paper describes about literature survey on to analyse the cognitive performance integrates with data mining techniques. 2. Cognitive process in Human Computer Interaction (HCI) Human computer interaction is concerned with how people use computer system to perform tasks, usually in a real life work setting. To evaluate the competing task by using usability criteria based on cognitive models. Cognitive processes is the process that involve knowledge, attention, memory, producing and understanding the language, problem solving and decision making. All these are very important for human behavior. The working process of each task can be analyzed by data mining techniques for finding the human behavior, attitude and attention performance in respect way. 2.1 Collecting Qualitative Data through Cognitive process Scope of knowledge is accumulated information, problem solving schemas, performance skills, expertise, memory capacity, problem representation ability, abstraction and categorization abilities, synthesis skills, long-term concentration ability, motivation, efficiency and accuracy. Data which is collected by using variety of techniques like Video and audio recording, software logging, Scan converters, think- aloud protocols or pencil and paper field notes. These techniques can be followed by several cognitive models such as GOM model, KLM model, Cognitive complexity which has to be evaluating by language based model such as Command Language grammar, Task Action Language, Task Action Grammar, and Knowledge Analysis of tasks. In cognitive complexity, the tasks can be assessed by analysing the number of entities that have to be related in a single representation. For eg: The hypothesis ideas such as collecting the personal data, family background, academic details, extracurricular activities, activities while during studies etc., are the basic attributes for analysing the performance skill for required person. The techniques are outlined for analysis of cognitive complexity in general cognition, cognitive development, mathematics education, reasoning tasks, psychometric test items, and industrial decision making, problem solving etc. The role of questionary format on the basis of problem solving, reasoning task, behaviour methods to analyse in effective way. 2.2 GOMS Model GOMS model stands for Goals, Operators, Methods, and Selection rules needed to perform a task. Tasks are broken down into their components to predict performance times. Figure.1 represents the process of GOM model describe as Goals are objectives Operators are the actions that change the system state or the cognitive state. Methods are description of procedures for achieving goals stored in the user’s knowledge structure of the task built-up for the problem solving. Fig.1 GOM model Selection Rules are If †¦Then statements to enable the user to choose between the methods under the time complexity. 2.3 Keystroke Level Model (KLM) KLM is derived from GOMS and describes the time taken to execute sub-task using the system facilities. Total time taken for an action is arrived at by simply adding together the times for each component task. To obtain the predicted time for a task and add the times for individual operators based on Fitt law, Steering Law. 2.4 Cognitive Complexity Theory Cognitive complexity theory is an extension of GOMS. It attempts to predict how difficult learn and use a system will be base on a GOMS model of the task and its required knowledge, a model of the user current knowledge and a list of the items of knowledge to be learned in order for the user to be able to make error- free use of the system. 2.5 Knowledge Analysis of Tasks (KAT) KAT is an evaluate model to identify the task gathered from variety of techniques including interviews and questionnaires, observation, rating scales, repertory grids and conduct online test for problem solving. The completed tasks will analysis for the performer by producing the result. KAT involves several stages such as Identify the person goals, sub goal and subtasks Work out order in which sub goal are to be carried out. Identify task strategies. Identify procedures. Identify Task Objects and Actions. 3. Data Mining Concepts Integrates To HCI The variety of domain values which are related with performance based on their required result carried out by cognitive process model. From fig.1 shows such factor may be founded by means of analysis based on data mining techniques. Usability criteria can be measured by setting performance targets in the system design at the stage of effectiveness, learning ability, and flexibility, attitude which is evaluated by either survey or experimental method. An analytical evaluation method is followed by the GOMS model, KLM model and Cognitive complexity theory for end-user testing through knowledge task analysis. After observational evaluation happened, the collection of data will be stored in the database. Using data mining techniques, preprocessing, data cleaning and transformation are carried out for avoid the redundancy and clear the noisy data from the database. After preprocessing, several algorithms are applied to discover the knowledge and performance factor are analysed to identify the human ability. 4. Data mining techniques An application of Data mining is a rich focus of Classification algorithm, Association algorithm, Clustering algorithm which can be applied to the field of some resources it concerns with developing methods that discover the knowledge from data originating from any other resource environment. Fig.1. Methodology Process of analyse skill by Data Mining Techniques 4.1 Classification Techniques In Classification process, the derive model is to predict the class of objects whose class label is unknown. The derived model is based on the analysis of asset of training data. In educational data mining, the work of data was predicted by logical rule of the Classification algorithms with the represent of common domain values for analyzing the qualitative performance of required details. In this case study, it can be predicting the human behavior through HCI by given the problem solving question, observational process and other resources. In this technique, it can be classified the functioning of cognitive style such as logical reasoning, analytical ability, Numerical ability, balanced profile for skill learning, personality analysis and other styles for analyzing the skill for the human user from the collected dataset systematically. In C4.5 algorithm construct in which enhanced by ID3 algorithm and it works in divide and conquer method. At the beginning stage the root is present to associate with training data set. The rule set is formed from the initial state of decision tree. Each path from the initial state, the condition will be evaluate and simplified by the effect of rule and an outcomes will put on the required leaf, the step will continuous when it comes discarding the condition. Let freq (Ci, S) stand for the number of samples in S that belong to class Ci (out of k possible classes), and à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ½Sà ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ½ denotes the number of samples in the set S. Then the entropy of the set S: equation (1) After set T has been partitioned in accordance with n outcomes of one attribute test X: equation (2) gain (x) = info (T) infox(T) In Naà ¯ve Bayes algorithm, to reduce computation in evaluating P (X|Ci), the naive assumption of class conditional is made. This presumes that the values of the attributes are conditionally independent of one another, given the class label of the tuple. The data set predicts that tuple X belongs to the class Ci. equation (3) By Bayes’ theorem, the classic for which P (Ci |X) is maximized is called the maximum posteriori hypothesis. P (Ci |X) = P(X|Ci)P(Ci) / P(X) equation (4) The classic for which P (Ci |X) is maximized is called the maximum posteriori hypothesis. It can easily estimate the probabilities P(x1|Ci)Ãâ€"P(x2|Ci)Ãâ€" ·Ã‚ ·Ãƒâ€"P(xn|Ci) from the training tuples by the following relationship. equation (5) 4.3 Clustering Techniques Cluster analysis is used to segment a large set of data into subsets called clusters. It is the process of grouping or organizing a set of objects into distinct group based on some similarity or dissimilarity measure among the individual objects, such that the objects in the same group are more similar to each other than those in other groups [2]. Through this technique, it can be cluster the skill level in style wise or any other pattern and analyse in each cognitive style in grouped manner. In this paper, K-means clustering can be used to analyse the classification of training tuple from the rule base relation, then it can be grouped the performance of skill in pattern wise. K-means algorithm takes the input parameter and partitions a set of n objects into k clusters. Cluster similarity is measured in regard to the mean value of the objects in a cluster based on center of gravity. For each of the remaining object is assigned to the cluster based on the distance. Iteration can be repeated until the function can satisfied. equation (6) where E is the sum of the square error for all objects in the data set; p is the point in space representing a given object; and mi is the mean of cluster Ci, the distance from the object to its cluster center is squared, and the distances are summed. The resulting of k clusters as compact and group can be formed for the required pattern. Experimentation of Training Data set and Result Analysis Using Data mining Techniques From this research survey, it can be analysed and produced an idea to propose the human performance based on cognitive process through Human Computer interface by interacting from computer system. The training data set can be experimented in data mining techniques to analysis the behavior of the human user via computer system. In this experiment, Classification technique approach was obtained accuracy to classification for forum data. Using Weka tool the classification algorithm was provided to experiment with sample data set by the given attributes like logical reasoning, numerical ability and personality for analyse the skill level of human user. Through clustering technique it can be analysed the performance of skill level from the classified training data set. Weka provides the range of the functioning in style wise and estimates the accuracy of resulting predicting model in classification algorithms are C4.5 and Naà ¯ve Bayes techniques used in the analyzing process. These techniques are decision making rule process which can be worked in probability evaluation model on the analysis of a set of training data. If logical_reasoning = good and Numerial_ability = good and personality=good then Performance= Good_skill_user If logical_reasoning = poor and Numerial_ability = poor and personality=good then Performance= Average_skill_user If logical_reasoning = poor and Numerial_ability = poor and personality=poor then Performance= below _average _skill_user TABLE.1: PERFORMANCE MEASURE FOR TRAINING DATA OF 200 SAMPLE INSTANCE From table.1, shows the measuring the performance of execution time and correctly classified instance based on the proposed algorithm for predicting in rule. In second experiment, the data clustering method can be used for checking the similarity based on the criteria of performance like Good skill user, Average Skill user and below average skill user using K-means algorithm technique. Fig. 2: Clustering Performance in pattern wise analysis 6. Conclusion In this studied, it can be concluded that an idea of Human computer interface which integrate with respect to cognitive models for analyzing human behavior of skill gathered by using problem solving using data mining techniques. By using 200 instance of sample training data set, which can be predicted by the rule of classification techniques of C4.5 and Naà ¯ve Bayes algorithm which can be produced their efficiency are C4.5 classified by execution time of accuracy is 0.25 second and 170 instance are correctly classified. Naà ¯ve Bayes algorithm classified by execution time of accuracy is 0.1 second and 142 instances are correctly classified. From the above analysis more instance of classifier is C4.5 algorithm was well suited for classification to skill analysis. Finally, it can be analysis by category wise based on pattern then produce 80% of Good skill user, 40% of Average Skill user and 5% below average skill user using K-means clustering algorithm. References 7.1 Book [1] Jiawei Han and Micheline Kamber, Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques, 2nd ed., Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, 2006. Arun K Pujari, â€Å"Data mining techniques†, University Press (India) Private Limited. David Hand, Heikki Mannila adhraic Smyth, â€Å"Principles of Data Mining†, MIT Press, 2001. Anderson, J.R, ‘The Architecture of Cognition’, Harvard University Press, Cambridge (1983). 7.2 Journal Article [5] Richard E.Clark, â€Å"Cognitive Task Analysis†, October 14, 2006. [6] Chipman, S. F., Schraagen, J. M., Shalin, V. L., â€Å"Introduction to Cognitive task analysis† [7] David H. Jonassen, â€Å"Analysis of Task Procedures†, Copyright [emailprotected] 1986. 7.3 Conference Proceedings [8] Bainbridge, L. â€Å"The change in concepts needed to account for human behaviour in complex  dynamic tasks†, IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man and Cybernetics, Part A: Systems and  Humans, 27, 351–359. [9] Arbi Ghazarian, â€Å"Pauses in man-machine interactions: a clue to users â€Å" Skill levels and their user  interface requirements†, Int. J. Cognitive Performance Support, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2013. [10] Sheikh,L Tanveer B. and Hamdani,S., Interesting Measures for Mining Association Rules.  IEEE-INMIC Conference December. 2004. [11] M. O. Mansur, M.Sap and M. Noor, â€Å"Outlier Detection Technique in Data mining: A Research  Perceptive†, In Postgraduate Annual Research Seminar, 2005. 1

Revenge and Vengeance in Shakespeares Hamlet - Vengeance in Hamlet :: GCSE Coursework Shakespeare Hamlet

Vengeance in Hamlet  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   With Outline  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Time and time again, we as a complex society have recognized in many pieces of great literature the idea of man and revenge. Throughout history, the idea of vengeance has destroyed large communities, populations and entire civilizations. The problem with man and revenge is that one may be side-tracted of   why or whom he is avenging. This similar idea is conveyed in the theme of Shakespear's Hamlet ,   "Vengeance can confuse a man's mind and soul to the point where he may not be sure of whom he is really avenging." Shakespear uses foils in this play to allow us readers to understand Hamlet as a man and why and whom he is really avenging.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A foil is   "minor character in a literary work who by the similarities and differences in what he or she does (as compared to a more important character), or by simply being there for another character to talk to, helps the audience understand a more important character." Laertes and the ghost are foils for Hamlet in this play which help us readers understand his character and his actions. During the play, Hamlet ignores his father's (ghost) warning about his mother, pretends to be crazy, betrays Ophelia, and delays the vengeance of his father's murder. What was the cause of these actions? Why did Hamlet delay his duty of vengeance? Through the insight of the ghost and Laertes, one may be able to come to his/her own conclusions.   Ã‚  Ã‚   Laertes was a stable-minded student who was Polonius's son and Ophelia's brother. He was a strong-willed young man whom studied over seas, was protective of Ophelia, loved his family, and kept his loyalty to King Hamlet and then to King Claudius. Hamlet and Laertes had never been friends, for Hamlet was of a higher social class.   In one aspect, Laertes respected their differences and in another, it made him leary of and curious about Hamlet and his ways. Also, hamlet had feelings for Ophelia for which Laertes despised and warranted off. Although Hamlet and Laertes differ, Laertes acts as a stable foil for Hamlet whom makes sound decisions and acts on his words instead of just speaking.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Laertes allows us readers to explore how Hamlet should have acted instead of how he did: Inactive, in a state of delay, and full of words.

Cultural Democracy

Cultural democracy – Summary This is the summary of the conference or debate between the two speakers Mr. Jerry Sambuaga and Mr. Lee Nathanael Santoso, discussing the topic of Cultural Democracy. The first topic that is discussed was on the ideal form of democracy. Mr. Jerry said that the ideal form of democracy is the one that prioritize freedom, to have liberalism implemented, which will eventually lead to individualism. In his opinion liberalism should be implemented in all aspects, such as in politics and economy.The examples of liberalism in politics are presidential election or parties, whereas the example of liberalism in economy is human rights. The freedom of speech, freedom to express opinions, since 1998, is the key to liberalism (direct democracy). On the other hand, when discussing the topic on the ideal form of democracy, Mr. Nathanael raises up the question â€Å"Whether democracy is universal or locally? † as his comeback. People now have human rights, t he right to choose what they think democracy is. He said that in Singapore the government plays a larger role compared than the role of freedom of speech (representative democracy).Mr. jerry said that democracy is invented in the west, and the democracy in Indonesia is still very fragile, there are aspects that have not yet been touched such as civil society, law enforcement, etc. There is a statement that Mr. Jerry gave that Mr. Nathanael also agrees on, and that is â€Å"Democracy is not a destination but a goal†. Mr. Nathanael added that democracy indeed is a mean or a goal, and the goal is not democracy but to make sure that every people have basic necessities (security, etc). Mr.Nathanael asked a rhetorical question, † which political system that can guarantee their country to be flexible enough to attain political grid lock? † From his point of view, Singapore is the closest one that has been able to achieve this. The second topic that the moderator discusse d was, â€Å"Should a country this big (Indonesia) use a federal system or a unitary system? † Mr. Nathanael said that our country should adopt a mix of the two systems. From Mr. jerry's point of view, Indonesia should use a federal system, because Indonesia is very diverse, if we force something it can cause damages. Mr. Nathanael debated Mr.Jerry's statement by saying that Singapore also has diversity, but they know how to harmonized the different point of views, opinions, etc. He said, â€Å"Minorities and other ethnicity receive the right to take part, to give a voice. † Mr. Jerry debated Mr. Nathanael’s statement by saying that Singapore has an oppressive or an authoritarian system, instead of having a freedom of speech. â€Å"Singapore has a good system but can it last with that system? Indonesia may not yet be successful now, but with the existence of liberty, and opportunity given for people to be able to govern, may lead Indonesia to become a developed country. Mr. Nathanael debated Mr. Jerry’s statement saying, â€Å"The authoritarian system in Singapore is different compared to China, in Singapore the law is clear, you can have a say on criticizing the government, but you must have facts to support it. Mr. Jerry’s opinion is that our country is best suited with having a little number parties, because a large number of parties slows down decision making, and does nut suit the presidential system. While Mr. Nathanael said that democracy is not about political parties, part of government,  it is about achieving national interests.He said that, â€Å"only the parties with money that can win (in indo), but in Singapore if you have a good vision you will be heard†. â€Å"Should democracy control freedom? † Mr. Jerry said that one’s freedom of expression could violate another's freedom of expression. Freedom should be controlled but not limited. Democracy may not be the best system, but it is stil l better to educate the people to participate. He added, â€Å"Freedom of rights of Singapore must be developed. † Mr. Nathanael commented, â€Å"Singapore are convinced that this is the system for them, the issue is Singapore’s system should be more relevant. Singapore’s human rights can’t be compared with Indonesia’s priority of economic prosperity. Cultural Democracy Critical Analysis Cultural Democracy is the term for a philosophy or policy emphasizing pluralism, participation, and equity within and between cultures. Which consists of a set of related commitments such as, protecting and promoting cultural diversity, and the right to culture for everyone in our society and around the world;? encouraging active participation in community cultural life;? enabling people to participate in policy decisions that affect the quality of our cultural lives; and ? ssuring fair and equitable access to cultural resources and support. There are three basic types of democracy: Direct democracy is a political system where the citizens participate in the decision-making personally, Representative democracy involves the selection of government officials by the people being represented, and Parliamentary democracy is a representative democracy where government is appointed by representatives as opposed to a ‘presidential rule' wherein the President is both head of state and the head of government and is elected by the voters.In my opinion, I think the ideal form of democracy should be the one where liberalism is highly considered, but where there is also a balance in government involvement. Because, as the people, we know what our country needs most, but with the diversity that our country possess, and with the different opinions that people have, there should be a representative democracy that can represent the people and chooses the best decisions for the people and the country. Should democracy control freedom?I think that freedom is both a positive and a negative think, if not controlled properly. People have different opinions, and if all of them have the freedom of speech, then there will be a moment where their freedom of expression will clash with others’ freedom of expression. That is why that freedom should also be controlled to a point of degree where people would still have the freedom of speech. The main reason why Indonesia has not been able to reach its full potential is because we have weak institutions, hence weak democracy.Indonesia should learn the complexity that is democracy, the many aspects that is consists of such as  legal certainty, transparency, freedom, etc. The one thing that Indonesia should be able to do to improve as a country is by knowing how to prioritize. Of course, in democracy alone there are many aspects that it consists of, and to manage this by knowing which to prioritize first, to the extent where all the aspects will be covered one by one. Indonesia should be consistent in following or running a liberal system.Of course, there are processes that need to be done; we need to fight for the freedom of the economy. The best solution is to have a modification based on the aspiration of the people. We should be able to learn, and adopt all the good elements that each country possesses, mix them up and implement them as our democratic system. By: Pamela Lemmuela (04320120057) FISIP/HI/2012 RESEARCH : ? Democracy? From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia A woman casts her vote in the second round of the French presidential election of 2007 Part of the Politics series|Democracy| History  Ã‚ · Outline| Basic forms| * Direct * Representative| Variants| * Anticipatory * Consensus * Deliberative * Demarchy * Economic * Electronic * Grassroots * Illiberal * Inclusive * Liberal * Non-partisan * Ochlocracy * Participatory * Radical * Religious * Representative direct * Sociocracy * Soviet * Totalitarian * Other| Politics portal| * v t e| Part of the Polit ics series| Basic forms ofgovernment| Power structure| * Confederal * Federal * Hegemony * Imperial * Unitary| Power source| Democracy * Direct * Representative * Other * Monarchy * Absolute * Constitutional * Oligarchy * Aristocracy * Meritocracy * Military junta * Plutocracy * Stratocracy * Technocracy * Timocracy * Other * Anarchy * Authoritarianism * Autocracy * Anocracy * Despotism * Dictatorship * Kritarchy * Republic * Theocracy * Totalitarianism| List of forms of government| Politics portal| * v t e|Democracy is a form of government in which all eligible citizens have an equal say in the decisions that affect their lives. Democracy allows people to participate equally—either directly or through elected representatives—in the proposal, development, and creation of laws. It encompasses social, economic and cultural conditions that enable the free and equal practice of political self-determination. The term originates from the Greek (demokratia) â€Å"rule of th e people†,[1] which was coined from demos) â€Å"people† and (kratos) â€Å"power† in the 5th century BCE to denote the political systems then existing in Greek city-states, notably Athens; the term is an antonym to â€Å"rule of an elite†. The English word dates to the 16th century, from the older Middle French and Middle Latin equivalents. A democratic government contrasts to forms of government where power is either held by one, as in a monarchy, or where power is held by a small number of individuals, as in an oligarchy or aristocracy.Nevertheless, these oppositions, inherited from Greek philosophy, are now ambiguous because contemporary governments have mixed democratic, oligarchic, and monarchic elements. Karl Popper defined democracy in contrast to dictatorship or tyranny, thus focusing on opportunities for the people to control their leaders and to oust them without the need for a revolution. [2] Several variants of democracy exist, but there ar e two basic forms, both of which concern how the whole body of citizens executes its will. One form of emocracy is direct democracy, in which citizens have direct and active participation in the decision making of the government. In most modern democracies, the whole body of citizens remain the sovereign power but political power is exercised indirectly through elected representatives; this is called representative democracy. The concept of representative democracy arose largely from ideas and institutions that developed during the European Middle Ages, the Age of Enlightenment, and the American and French Revolutions. [3] Contents   [hide]   * 1 Definition * 2 History * 2. Ancient origins * 2. 2 Middle Ages * 2. 3 Modern era * 3 Countries * 4 Types * 4. 1 Basic forms * 4. 2 Variants * 4. 3 Non-governmental * 5 Theory * 5. 1 Aristotle * 5. 2 Rationale * 5. 3 Ideal forms * 5. 4 Practice * 5. 5 Criticism * 6 Development * 7 See also * 8 References * 9 External links| [edit] Defini tion While there is no universally accepted definition of â€Å"democracy,†[4] equality and freedom have both been identified as important characteristics of democracy since ancient times. 5] These principles are reflected in all citizens being equal before the law and having equal access to legislative processes. For example, in a representative democracy, every vote has equal weight, no unreasonable restrictions can apply to anyone seeking to become a representative, and the freedom of its citizens is secured by legitimized rights and liberties which are generally protected by a constitution. [6][7] One theory holds that democracy requires three fundamental principles: 1) upward control, i. e. overeignty residing at the lowest levels of authority, 2) political equality, and 3) social norms by which individuals and institutions only consider acceptable acts that reflect the first two principles of upward control and political equality. [8] The term â€Å"democracy† is sometimes used as shorthand for liberal democracy, which is a variant of representative democracy that may include elements such as political pluralism; equality before the law; the right to petition elected officials for redress of grievances; due process; civil liberties; human rights; and lements of civil society outside the government. [citation needed] In the United States, separation of powers is often cited as a central attribute, but in other countries, such as the United Kingdom, the dominant principle is that of parliamentary sovereignty (while maintaining judicial independence). [citation needed] In other cases, â€Å"democracy† is used to mean direct democracy. Though the term â€Å"democracy† is typically used in the context of a political state, the principles also are applicable to private organizations. Majority rule is often listed as a characteristic of democracy. by whom? ] Hence, democracy allows for political minorities to be oppressed by the â₠¬Å"tyranny of the majority† in the absence of legal protections of individual or group rights. An essential part of an â€Å"ideal† representative democracy is competitive elections that are fair both substantively[9] and procedurally. [10] Furthermore, freedom of political expression, freedom of speech, and freedom of the press are considered to be essential rights that allow citizens to be adequately informed and able to vote according to their own interests. 11][12] It has also been suggested that a basic feature of democracy is the capacity of individuals to participate freely and fully in the life of their society. [13] With its emphasis on notions of social contract and the collective will of the people, democracy can also be characterized as a form of political collectivism because it is defined as a form of government in which all eligible citizens have an equal say in the decisions that affect their lives. [14] While democracy is often equated with the republic an form of government, the term â€Å"republic† classically has encompassed both democracies and aristocracies. 15][16] [edit] History Main article: History of democracy [edit] Ancient origins See also: Athenian democracy Cleisthenes, â€Å"father of Athenian democracy†, modern bust. The term â€Å"democracy† first appeared in ancient Greek political and philosophical thought in the city-state of Athens. [17][18] Led by Cleisthenes, Athenians established what is generally held as the first democracy in 508-507 BCE. Cleisthenes is referred to as â€Å"the father of Athenian democracy. [19] Athenian democracy took the form of a direct democracy, and it had two distinguishing features: the random selection of ordinary citizens to fill the few existing government administrative and judicial offices,[20] and a legislative assembly consisting of all Athenian citizens. [21] All citizens were eligible to speak and vote in the assembly, which set the laws of the city st ate. However, Athenian citizenship excluded women, slaves, foreigners ( metoikoi), and males under 20 years old. [citation needed] Of the estimated 200,000 to 400,000 inhabitants of Athens, there were between 30,000 and 60,000 citizens. citation needed] The exclusion of large parts of the population from the citizen body is closely related to the ancient understanding of citizenship. In most of antiquity the benefit of citizenship was tied to the obligation to fight war campaigns. [citation needed] Athenian democracy was not only direct in the sense that decisions were made by the assembled people, but also directest in the sense that the people through the assembly, boule and courts of law controlled the entire political process and a large proportion of citizens were involved constantly in the public business. 22] Even though the rights of the individual were not secured by the Athenian constitution in the modern sense (the ancient Greeks had no word for â€Å"rights†[23]), the Athenians enjoyed their liberties not in opposition to the government but by living in a city that was not subject to another power and by not being subjects themselves to the rule of another person. [24] Even though the Roman Republic contributed significantly to certain aspects of democracy, only a minority of Romans were citizens with votes in elections for representatives.The votes of the powerful were given more weight through a system of gerrymandering, so most high officials, including members of the Senate, came from a few wealthy and noble families. [25] However, many notable exceptions did occur. [citation needed] [edit] Middle Ages During the Middle Ages, there were various systems involving elections or assemblies, although often only involving a small amount of the population, the election of Gopala in Bengal region of Indian Subcontinent (within a aste system), the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (10% of population), the Althing in Iceland, the Logting in the Faero e Islands, certain medieval Italian city-states such as Venice, the tuatha system in early medieval Ireland, the Veche in Novgorod and Pskov Republics of medieval Russia, Scandinavian Things, The States in Tirol and Switzerland and the autonomous merchant city of Sakai in the 16th century in Japan. However, participation was often restricted to a minority, and so may be better classified as oligarchy.Most regions in medieval Europe were ruled by clergy or feudal lords. The Kouroukan Fouga divided the Mali Empire into ruling clans (lineages) that were represented at a great assembly called the Gbara. However, the charter made Mali more similar to a constitutional monarchy than a democratic republic. A little closer to modern democracy were the Cossack republics of Ukraine in the 16th–17th centuries: Cossack Hetmanate and Zaporizhian Sich. The highest post – the Hetman – was elected by the representatives from the country's districts.Magna Carta, 1215, England The Parliament of England had its roots in the restrictions on the power of kings written into Magna Carta, which explicitly protected certain rights of the King's subjects, whether free or fettered – and implicitly supported what became English writ of habeas corpus, safeguarding individual freedom against unlawful imprisonment with right to appeal. The first elected parliament was De Montfort's Parliament in England in 1265.However only a small minority actually had a voice; Parliament was elected by only a few percent of the population, (less than 3% as late as 1780[26]), and the power to call parliament was at the pleasure of the monarch (usually when he or she needed funds). The power of Parliament increased in stages over the succeeding centuries. After the Glorious Revolution of 1688, the English Bill of Rights of 1689 was enacted, which codified certain rights and increased the influence of Parliament. 26] The franchise was slowly increased and Parliament gradually gaine d more power until the monarch became largely a figurehead. [27] As the franchise was increased, it also was made more uniform, as many so-called rotten boroughs, with a handful of voters electing a Member of Parliament, were eliminated in the Reform Act of 1832. In North America, the English Puritans who migrated from 1620 established colonies in New England whose governance was democratic and which contributed to the democratic development of the United States. 28] [edit] Modern era [edit] 18th and 19th centuries The first nation in modern history to adopt a democratic constitution was the short-lived Corsican Republic in 1755. This Corsican Constitution was the first based on Enlightenment principles and even allowed for female suffrage, something that was granted in other democracies only by the 20th century. In 1789, Revolutionary France adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen and, although short-lived, the National Convention was elected by all males in 1792. [29]The establishment of universal male suffrage in France in 1848 was an important milestone in the history of democracy. Universal male suffrage was definitely established in France in March 1848 in the wake of the French Revolution of 1848. [30] In 1848, several revolutions broke out in Europe as rulers were confronted with popular demands for liberal constitutions and more democratic government. [31] Although not described as a democracy by the founding fathers, the United States founders also shared a determination to root the American experiment in the principle of natural freedom and equality. 32] The United States Constitution, adopted in 1788, provided for an elected government and protected civil rights and liberties for some. In the colonial period before 1776, and for some time after, often only adult white male property owners could vote; enslaved Africans, most free black people and most women were not extended the franchise. On the American frontier, democracy became a way of life, with widespread social, economic and political equality. 33] However, slavery was a social and economic institution, particularly in eleven states in the American South, such that a variety of organizations were established advocating the movement of black people from the United States to locations where they would enjoy greater freedom and equality. In the 1860 United States Census the slave population in the United States had grown to four million,[34] and in Reconstruction after the Civil War (late 1860s) the newly freed slaves became citizens with (in the case of men) a nominal right to vote.Full enfranchisement of citizens was not secured until after the African-American Civil Rights Movement (1955–1968) gained passage by the United States Congress of the Voting Rights Act of 1965. [35][36] [edit] 20th and 21st centuries The number of nations 1800–2003 scoring 8 or higher on Polity IV scale, another widely used measure of democracy. 20th cent ury transitions to liberal democracy have come in successive â€Å"waves of democracy,† variously resulting from wars, revolutions, decolonization, religious and economic circumstances.World War I and the dissolution of the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires resulted in the creation of new nation-states from Europe, most of them at least nominally democratic. In the 1920s democracy flourished, but the Great Depression brought disenchantment, and most of the countries of Europe, Latin America, and Asia turned to strong-man rule or dictatorships. Fascism and dictatorships flourished in Nazi Germany, Italy, Spain and Portugal, as well as nondemocratic regimes in the Baltics, the Balkans, Brazil, Cuba, China, and Japan, among others. 37] World War II brought a definitive reversal of this trend in western Europe. The democratization of the American, British, and French sectors of occupied Germany (disputed[38]), Austria, Italy, and the occupied Japan served as a model for the la ter theory of regime change. However, most of Eastern Europe, including the Soviet sector of Germany fell into the non-democratic Soviet bloc. The war was followed by decolonization, and again most of the new independent states had nominally democratic constitutions. India emerged as the world's largest democracy and continues to be so. 39] By 1960, the vast majority of country-states were nominally democracies, although most of the world's populations lived in nations that experienced sham elections, and other forms of subterfuge (particularly in Communist nations and the former colonies. ) A subsequent wave of democratization brought substantial gains toward true liberal democracy for many nations. Spain, Portugal (1974), and several of the military dictatorships in South America returned to civilian rule in the late 1970s and early 1980s (Argentina in 1983, Bolivia, Uruguay in 1984, Brazil in 1985, and Chile in the early 1990s).This was followed by nations in East and South Asia by the mid-to-late 1980s. Economic malaise in the 1980s, along with resentment of Soviet oppression, contributed to the collapse of the Soviet Union, the associated end of the Cold War, and the democratization and liberalization of the former Eastern bloc countries. The most successful of the new democracies were those geographically and culturally closest to western Europe, and they are now members or candidate members of the European Union. Some researchers consider that contemporary Russia is not a true democracy and instead resembles a form of dictatorship. 40] The Economist's Democracy Index as published in December 2011, with greener colours representing more democratic countries and clearly authoritarian countries in dark red. The liberal trend spread to some nations in Africa in the 1990s, most prominently in South Africa. Some recent examples of attempts of liberalization include the Indonesian Revolution of 1998, the Bulldozer Revolution in Yugoslavia, the Rose Revolution in Georgia, the Orange Revolution in Ukraine, the Cedar Revolution in Lebanon, the Tulip Revolution in Kyrgyzstan, and the Jasmine Revolution in Tunisia.According to Freedom House, in 2007 there were 123 electoral democracies (up from 40 in 1972). [41] According to World Forum on Democracy, electoral democracies now represent 120 of the 192 existing countries and constitute 58. 2 percent of the world's population. At the same time liberal democracies i. e. countries Freedom House regards as free and respectful of basic human rights and the rule of law are 85 in number and represent 38 percent of the global population. [42] In 2010 the United Nations declared September 15 the International Day of Democracy. 43] [edit] Countries The following countries are categorized by the Democracy Index 2011 as Full democracy:[44] 1. Norway? 2. Iceland? 3. Denmark? 4. Sweden? 5. New Zealand   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  | 6. Australia? 7. Switzerland? 8. Canada? 9. Finland? 10. Netherlands   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã ‚  | 11. Luxembourg   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  ? 12. Ireland? 13. Austria? 14. Germany? 15. Malta| 16. Czech Republic   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  ? 17. Uruguay? 18. United Kingdom? 19. United States? 20. Costa Rica| 21. Japan? 22. South Korea? 23. Belgium? 24. Mauritius? 25.Spain| The Index assigns 53 countries to the next category, Flawed democracy: Argentina, Benin, Botswana, Brazil, Bulgaria, Cape Verde, Chile, Colombia, Croatia, Cyprus, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Estonia, France, Ghana, Greece, Guyana, Hungary, Indonesia, Israel, Italy, Jamaica, Latvia, Lesotho, Lithuania, Macedonia, Malaysia, Mali, India, Mexico, Moldova, Mongolia, Montenegro, Namibia, Panama, Papua New Guinea, Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Suriname, Taiwan, Thailand, Timor-Leste, Trinidad and Tobago, Zambia[44] [edit]Types See also: List of types of democracy Democracy has taken a number of forms, both in theory and practice. Some varieties of democracy provide better representation and more freedom for their citizens than others. [45][46] However, if any democracy is not structured so as to prohibit the government from excluding the people from the legislative process, or any branch of government from altering the separation of powers in its own favor, then a branch of the system can accumulate too much power and destroy the democracy. 47][48][49] World's states colored by form of government as of 20111 Presidential republics2|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Semi-presidential republics2|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Parliamentary republics2|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Single-party republics|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Parliamentary constitutional monarchies|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Absolute monarchies|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Military dictatorships|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Parliamentary constitutional monarchies in which the monarch personally exercises power|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Republics with an executive president dependent on a parliament|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Countries which do not fit any of the above systems| | This map was complied according to the Wikipedia list of countries by system of government. See there for sources. 2Several states constitutionally deemed to be multiparty republics are broadly described by outsiders as authoritarian states. This map presents only the de jure form of government, and not the de facto degree of democracy. The following kinds of democracy are not exclusive of one another: many specify details of aspects that are independent of one another and can co-exist in a single system. [edit] Basic forms [edit] DirectMain article: Direct democracy Direct democracy is a political system where the citizens participate in the decision-making personally, contrary to relying on intermediaries or representatives. The supporters of direct democracy argue that democracy is more than merely a procedural issue. A direct democracy gives the voting population the power to: Landsgemeinde of the canton of Appenzell Innerr hoden, example for direct democracy in Switzerland 1. Change constitutional laws, 2. Put forth initiatives, referendums and suggestions for laws, 3.Give binding orders to elective officials, such as revoking them before the end of their elected term, or initiating a lawsuit for breaking a campaign promise. Of the three measures mentioned, most operate in developed democracies today. This is part of a gradual shift towards direct democracies. Elements of direct democracy exist on a local level in many countries, though these systems often coexist with representative assemblies. Usually, this includes equal (and more or less direct) participation in the proposal, development and passage of legislation into law. [14] [edit]Representative Main article: Representative democracy Representative democracy involves the selection of government officials by the people being represented. If the head of state is also democratically elected then it is called a democratic republic. [50] The most c ommon mechanisms involve election of the candidate with a majority or a plurality of the votes. Representatives may be elected or become diplomatic representatives by a particular district (or constituency), or represent the entire electorate through proportional systems, with some using a combination of the two.Some representative democracies also incorporate elements of direct democracy, such as referendums. A characteristic of representative democracy is that while the representatives are elected by the people to act in the people's interest, they retain the freedom to exercise their own judgment as how best to do so. [edit] Parliamentary Main article: Parliamentary system Parliamentary democracy is a representative democracy where government is appointed by representatives as opposed to a ‘presidential rule' wherein the President is both head of state and the head of government and is elected by the voters.Under a parliamentary democracy, government is exercised by delegat ion to an executive ministry and subject to ongoing review, checks and balances by the legislative parliament elected by the people. [51][52][53][54][55] Parliamentary systems have the right to dismiss a Prime Minister at any point in time that they feel he or she is not doing their job to the expectations of the legislature. This is done through a Vote of No Confidence where the legislature decides whether or not to remove the Prime Minister from office by a majority support for his or her dismissal. 56] In some countries, the Prime Minister can also call an election whenever he or she so chooses, and typically the Prime Minister will hold an election when he or she knows that they are in good favor with the public as to get re-elected. In other parliamentary democracies extra elections are virtually never held, a minority government being preferred until the next ordinary elections. [edit] Presidential Main article: Presidential system Presidential Democracy is a system where the public elects the president through free and fair elections.The president serves as both the head of state and head of government controlling most of the executive powers. The president serves for a specific term and cannot exceed that amount of time. Elections typically have a fixed date and aren’t easily changed. The president has direct control over the cabinet, the members of which are specifically appointed by the president himself. [56] The president cannot be easily removed from office by the legislature, but he or she cannot remove members of the legislative branch any more easily.This provides some measure of separation of powers. In consequence however, the president and the legislature may end up in the control of separate parties, allowing one to block the other and thereby interfere with the orderly operation of the state. This may be the reason why presidential democracy is not very common outside the Americas. [56] A semi-presidential system is a system of demo cracy in which the government includes both a prime minister and a president. The particular powers held by the prime minister and president vary by country. 56] [edit] Constitutional Main article: Constitutional democracy A constitutional democracy is a representative democracy in which the ability of the elected representatives to exercise decision-making power is subject to the rule of law, and usually moderated by a constitution that emphasizes the protection of the rights and freedoms of individuals, and which places constraints on the leaders and on the extent to which the will of the majority can be exercised against the rights of minorities (see civil liberties).In a constitutional democracy, it is possible for some large-scale decisions to emerge from the many individual decisions that citizens are free to make. In other words, citizens can â€Å"vote with their feet† or â€Å"vote with their dollars†, resulting in significant informal government-by-the-masses that exercises many â€Å"powers† associated with formal government elsewhere. [edit] Hybrid Some modern democracies that are predominately representative in nature also heavily rely upon forms of political action that are directly democratic.These democracies, which combine elements of representative democracy and direct democracy, are termed hybrid democracies[57] or semi-direct democracies. Examples include Switzerland and some U. S. states, where frequent use is made of referendums and initiatives. Although managed by a representative legislative body, Switzerland allows for initiatives and referendums at both the local and federal levels. In the past 120 years less than 250 initiatives have been put to referendum.The populace has been conservative, approving only about 10% of the initiatives put before them; in addition, they have often opted for a version of the initiative rewritten by government. [citation needed] In the United States, no mechanisms of direct democrac y exists at the federal level, but over half of the states and many localities provide for citizen-sponsored ballot initiatives (also called â€Å"ballot measures†, â€Å"ballot questions† or â€Å"propositions†), and the vast majority of states allow for referendums.Examples include the extensive use of referendums in the US state of California, which is a state that has more than 20 million voters. [58] In New England Town meetings are often used, especially in rural areas, to manage local government. This creates a hybrid form of government, with a local direct democracy and a state government which is representative. For example, most Vermont towns hold annual town meetings in March in which town officers are elected, budgets for the town and schools are voted on, and citizens have an opportunity to speak and by heard on political matters. 59] [edit] Variants [edit] Republic Main article: Republicanism In contemporary usage, the term democracy refers to a go vernment chosen by the people, whether it is direct or representative. [60] The term republic has many different meanings, but today often refers to a representative democracy with an elected head of state, such as a president, serving for a limited term, in contrast to states with a hereditary monarch as a head of state, even if these states also are representative democracies with an elected or appointed head of government such as a prime minister. 61] The Founding Fathers of the United States rarely praised and often criticized democracy, which in their time tended to specifically mean direct democracy, often without the protection of a Constitution enshrining basic rights; James Madison argued, especially in The Federalist No. 10, that what distinguished a democracy from a republic was that the former became weaker as it got larger and suffered more violently from the effects of faction, whereas a republic could get stronger as it got larger and combats faction by its very struc ture.What was critical to American values, John Adams insisted,[62] was that the government be â€Å"bound by fixed laws, which the people have a voice in making, and a right to defend. † As Benjamin Franklin was exiting after writing the U. S. constitution, a woman asked him â€Å"Well, Doctor, what have we got—a republic or a monarchy? â€Å". He replied â€Å"A republic—if you can keep it. â€Å"[63] Queen Elizabeth II, a constitutional monarch. [edit] Constitutional monarchy Main article: constitutional monarchyInitially after the American and French revolutions, the question was open whether a democracy, in order to restrain unchecked majority rule, should have an elite upper chamber, the members perhaps appointed meritorious experts or having lifetime tenures, or should have a constitutional monarch with limited but real powers. Some countries (as Britain, the Netherlands, Belgium, Scandinavian countries, Thailand, Japan and Bhutan) turned powerful mon archs into constitutional monarchs with limited or, often gradually, merely symbolic roles.Often the monarchy was abolished along with the aristocratic system (as in France, China, Russia, Germany, Austria, Hungary, Italy, Greece and Egypt). Many nations had elite upper houses of legislatures which often had lifetime tenure, but eventually these lost power (as in Britain) or else became elective and remained powerful (as in the United States). [edit] Socialist Socialist thought has several different views on democracy. Social democracy, democratic socialism, and the dictatorship of the proletariat (usually exercised through Soviet democracy) are some examples.Many democratic socialists and social democrats believe in a form of participatory democracy and workplace democracy combined with a representative democracy. Within Marxist orthodoxy there is a hostility to what is commonly called â€Å"liberal democracy†, which they simply refer to as parliamentary democracy because of its often centralized nature. Because of their desire to eliminate the political elitism they see in capitalism, Marxists, Leninists and Trotskyists believe in direct democracy implemented through a system of communes (which are sometimes called soviets).This system ultimately manifests itself as council democracy and begins with workplace democracy. (See Democracy in Marxism) Democracy cannot consist solely of elections that are nearly always fictitious and managed by rich landowners and professional politicians. —Che Guevara,  Speech, Uruguay, 1961[64] [edit] Anarchist Anarchists are split in this domain, depending on whether they believe that a majority-rule is tyrannic or not. The only form of democracy considered acceptable to many anarchists is direct democracy.Pierre-Joseph Proudhon argued that the only acceptable form of direct democracy is one in which it is recognized that majority decisions are not binding on the minority, even when unanimous. [65] However, anar cho-communist Murray Bookchin criticized individualist anarchists for opposing democracy,[66] and says â€Å"majority rule† is consistent with anarchism. [67] Some anarcho-communists oppose the majoritarian nature of direct democracy, feeling that it can impede individual liberty and opt in favour of a non-majoritarian form of consensus democracy, similar to Proudhon's position on direct democracy. 68] Henry David Thoreau, who did not self-identify as an anarchist but argued for â€Å"a better government†[69] and is cited as an inspiration by some anarchists, argued that people should not be in the position of ruling others or being ruled when there is no consent. [edit] Demarchy Main article: Demarchy Sometimes called â€Å"democracy without elections†, demarchy uses sortition to choose decision makers via a random process. The intention is that those chosen will be representative of the opinions and interests of the people at large, and be more fair and impart ial than an elected official.The technique was in widespread use in Athenian Democracy and is still used in modern jury selection. [edit] Consensus Main article: Consensus democracy Consensus democracy requires varying degrees of consensus rather than just a mere democratic majority. It typically attempts to protect minority rights from domination by majority rule. [edit] Supranational Qualified majority voting is designed by the Treaty of Rome to be the principal method of reaching decisions in the European Council of Ministers. This system allocates votes to member states in part according to their population, but heavily weighted in favour of the smaller states.This might be seen as a form of representative democracy, but representatives to the Council might be appointed rather than directly elected. Some might consider the â€Å"individuals† being democratically represented to be states rather than people, as with many others. European Parliament members are democraticall y directly elected on the basis of universal suffrage, may be seen as an example of a supranational democratic institution. [edit] Non-governmental Aside from the public sphere, similar democratic principles and mechanisms of voting and representation have been used to govern other kinds of communities and organizations.Many non-governmental organizations decide policy and leadership by voting. Most trade unions and cooperatives are governed by democratic elections. Corporations are controlled by shareholders on the principle of one share, one vote. [edit] Theory A marble statue of Aristotle. [edit] Aristotle Aristotle contrasted rule by the many (democracy/polity), with rule by the few (oligarchy/aristocracy), and with rule by a single person (tyranny or today autocracy/monarchy). He also thought that there was a good and a bad variant of each system (he considered democracy to be the degenerate counterpart to polity). 70][71] For Aristotle the underlying principle of democracy is freedom, since only in a democracy the citizens can have a share in freedom. In essence, he argues that this is what every democracy should make its aim. There are two main aspects of freedom: being ruled and ruling in turn, since everyone is equal according to number, not merit, and to be able to live as one pleases. But one factor of liberty is to govern and be governed in turn; for the popular principle of justice is to have equality according to number, not worth, †¦.And one is for a man to live as he likes; for they say that this is the function of liberty, inasmuch as to live not as one likes is the life of a man that is a slave. —Aristotle,  Politics 1317b (Book 6, Part II) [edit] Rationale Among modern political theorists, there are three contending conceptions of the fundamental rationale for democracy: aggregative democracy, deliberative democracy, and radical democracy. [72] [edit] Aggregative The theory of aggregative democracy claims that the aim of the de mocratic processes is to solicit citizens’ preferences and aggregate them together to determine what social policies society should adopt.Therefore, proponents of this view hold that democratic participation should primarily focus on voting, where the policy with the most votes gets implemented. Different variants of aggregative democracy exist. Under minimalism, democracy is a system of government in which citizens give teams of political leaders the right to rule in periodic elections. According to this minimalist conception, citizens cannot and should not â€Å"rule† because, for example, on most issues, most of the time, they have no clear views or their views are not well-founded.Joseph Schumpeter articulated this view most famously in his book Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy. [73] Contemporary proponents of minimalism include William H. Riker, Adam Przeworski, Richard Posner. According to the theory of direct democracy, on the other hand, citizens should vot e directly, not through their representatives, on legislative proposals. Proponents of direct democracy offer varied reasons to support this view. Political activity can be valuable in itself, it socializes and educates citizens, and popular participation can check powerful elites.Most importantly, citizens do not really rule themselves unless they directly decide laws and policies. Governments will tend to produce laws and policies that are close to the views of the median voter– with half to his left and the other half to his right. This is not actually a desirable outcome as it represents the action of self-interested and somewhat unaccountable political elites competing for votes. Anthony Downs suggests that ideological political parties are necessary to act as a mediating broker between individual and governments.Downs laid out this view in his 1957 book An Economic Theory of Democracy. [74] Robert A. Dahl argues that the fundamental democratic principle is that, when it comes to binding collective decisions, each person in a political community is entitled to have his/her interests be given equal consideration (not necessarily that all people are equally satisfied by the collective decision). He uses the term polyarchy to refer to societies in which there exists a certain set of institutions and procedures which are perceived as leading to such democracy.First and foremost among these institutions is the regular occurrence of free and open elections which are used to select representatives who then manage all or most of the public policy of the society. However, these polyarchic procedures may not create a full democracy if, for example, poverty prevents political participation. [75] Some[who? ] see a problem with the wealthy having more influence and therefore argue for reforms like campaign finance reform. Some[who? ] may see it as a problem that only voters decide policy, as opposed to a majority rule of the entire population.This can be used a s an argument for making political participation mandatory, like compulsory voting or for making it more patient (non-compulsory) by simply refusing power to the government until the full majority feels inclined to speak their minds. [edit] Deliberative Deliberative democracy is based on the notion that democracy is government by deliberation. Unlike aggregative democracy, deliberative democracy holds that, for a democratic decision to be legitimate, it must be preceded by authentic deliberation, not merely the aggregration of preferences that occurs in voting.Authentic deliberation is deliberation among decision-makers that is free from distortions of unequal political power, such as power a decision-maker obtained through economic wealth or the support of interest groups. [76][77][78] If the decision-makers cannot reach consensus after authentically deliberating on a proposal, then they vote on the proposal using a form of majority rule. [edit] Radical Radical democracy is based o n the idea that there are hierarchical and oppressive power relations that exist in society.Democracy's role is to make visible and challenge those relations by allowing for difference, dissent and antagonisms in decision making processes. [edit] Ideal forms [edit] Inclusive Main article: Inclusive Democracy Inclusive democracy is a political theory and political project that aims for direct democracy in all fields of social life: political democracy in the form of face-to-face assemblies which are confederated, economic democracy in a stateless, moneyless and marketless economy, democracy in the social realm, i. . self-management in places of work and education, and ecological democracy which aims to reintegrate society and nature. The theoretical project of inclusive democracy emerged from the work of political philosopher Takis Fotopoulos in â€Å"Towards An Inclusive Democracy† and was further developed in the journal Democracy & Nature and its successor The International Journal of Inclusive Democracy. The basic unit of decision making in an inclusive democracy is the demotic assembly, i. e. he assembly of demos, the citizen body in a given geographical area which may encompass a town and the surrounding villages, or even neighbourhoods of large cities. An inclusive democracy today can only take the form of a confederal democracy that is based on a network of administrative councils whose members or delegates are elected from popular face-to-face democratic assemblies in the various demoi. Thus, their role is purely administrative and practical, not one of policy-making like that of representatives in representative democracy.The citizen body is advised by experts but it is the citizen body which functions as the ultimate decision-taker . Authority can be delegated to a segment of the citizen body to carry out specific duties, for example to serve as members of popular courts, or of regional and confederal councils. Such delegation is made, in prin ciple, by lot, on a rotation basis, and is always recallable by the citizen body. Delegates to regional and confederal bodies should have specific mandates. [edit]